Negative religious and cultural views on masturbation are rooted in history, social norms and philosophical concepts, but need to be dialectically analyzed in conjunction with specific contexts.
1. Christianity
• Original sin and physical confinement:
• The Bible does not explicitly mention masturbation, but the medieval church listed "excessive masturbation" as one of the "seven deadly sins" through the "Decret of Gregory VII", which was regarded as a blasphemy against the sexual ability given by God.
• Puritan ethics influence: During the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism emphasized restraint of desire to highlight the identity of "elect", which strengthened the moral criticism of masturbation.
• Modern church positions are divided:
• Catholicism still retains the traditional doctrine that "masturbation is harmful to health" (such as "The Dignity of Human Life"), but some evangelicals are more concerned with the teleological criticism that "sexual behavior should lead to marriage" rather than simply prohibiting it.
2. Islam
• The sanctity and teleology of sexual behavior:
• The Quran does not directly prohibit masturbation, but emphasizes that sexual behavior should only be completed within marriage ("Those of you who are unmarried, men and women, who wish to remain chaste, should do so").
• Sufis and schools of law (such as the Malik school) regard excessive masturbation as "haram" (taboo) because it deviates from the "restraint" (salma) advocated by religion.
3. Buddhism and Hinduism
• Karma and reincarnation concepts:
• The Buddhist "Great Wisdom Treatise" regards excessive masturbation as a manifestation of "greed, anger, and ignorance" and an obstacle to liberation; the Hindu "Manu Code" believes that the loss of semen consumes "life energy" (Sanskrit "Oshena"), which needs to be compensated by abstinence or sacrifice.
• Exceptions in Tantra:
• Some Tibetan Buddhist schools regard masturbation as a tool for practice (such as "qi channel guidance"), but it is strictly limited to high-level practitioners.
4. Judaism
• Double standards in the Talmud:
• Married men are allowed to preserve their vitality by "giving away semen" (such as masturbation), but unmarried people are prohibited from masturbating (Jerusalem Talmud, Kininus).
• Modern Orthodoxy still emphasizes that sexual behavior is limited to marriage, but secular Judaism is more concerned with individual health rather than moral judgment.
1. Body control under patriarchy
• Commodification of female bodies:
• The idea of "preserving heaven's principles and eliminating human desires" in the Ming and Qing dynasties in China regarded female masturbation as a symbol of "loss of chastity", which was co-constructed with materialized disciplines such as "chastity belts".
• In the Victorian era in Europe, female masturbation was falsely accused of "hysteria" and required "treatment" through surgery (such as ovarian removal).
• Anxiety about masculinity:
• Some cultures regard masturbation as a sign of "weakness" (such as Erestes, the "castrator" in Greek mythology), strengthening excessive competition for male sexual ability.
2. Colonization and cultural export
• The colonial imprint of Western sexual concepts:
• In the 19th century, scholars of "white supremacy" described the "collective masturbation ritual" of African tribes as "primitive and barbaric", providing moral legitimacy for colonial rule.
• During the Meiji Restoration in Japan, Christian sexual ethics were introduced, and traditional "bedroom arts" were denounced as "obscene", resulting in a long-term lack of sex education.
3. Subculture taboos
• "Dirty" and "loss" in Chinese culture:
• The proverb "one drop of semen is ten drops of blood" regards semen as a precious resource, and masturbation is regarded as "loss of essence", which is deeply bound to health culture.
• Some areas in southern Fujian still retain the custom of "pre-marital chastity test for brides", which implies the stigmatization of female masturbation.
1. Deconstructing the Boundary between “Nature” and “Morality”
• Biological Perspective:
• Anthropologist Margaret Mead pointed out that so-called “natural” sexual behavior is actually a product of cultural construction, and the masturbation taboo is essentially the discipline of the body by power.
• Health Rights Movement:
• WHO includes masturbation in the “Guidelines for Sex Education”, emphasizing its health value as a “normal physiological behavior” and challenging religious and cultural taboos.
2. LGBTQ+ and the Struggle against Stigma
• Self-empowerment of the Transgender Community:
• Some non-binary people explore body identity through masturbation, such as queer theorist Judith Butler, who advocates that “gender performance” should include the subversion of traditional taboos.
• Reform within religion:
• For example, the Religious Freedom Alliance in the United States promotes the legalization of same-sex marriage, indirectly dismantling the sexual ethics framework under "heterosexual hegemony".
3. The subversive power of cultural creativity
• Rebellion in art and literature:
• The relationship between Naoko and Watanabe in Haruki Murakami's "Norwegian Wood" is a metaphor for resistance to Japan's sexual repression culture.
• The movie "Farewell My Concubine" uses operatic postures to show the complex interweaving of gender roles and desires, dispelling traditional taboos.
1. Distinguish "cultural traditions" from "individual rights":
• Respect religious and cultural diversity, but oppose infringing on sexual health rights in the name of faith (such as prohibiting contraception or treating sexual dysfunction).
2. Promote scientific popularization and ethical education:
• Dispel myths through school courses and community lectures, for example:
• Masturbation does not lead to "kidney deficiency" or "mental weakness".
• The masturbation needs of sexual minorities should be tolerated.
3. Promote cultural awareness:
• For example, India's "Kerala Sex Education Movement" popularized masturbation knowledge through comics in local languages, combining Western scientific discourse with local cultural symbols to reduce resistance to acceptance.
